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Hint
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Term
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A cultural and geographic region including China, Japan, Korea, and surrounding areas.
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East Asia
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A major East Asian civilization and the country where ice cream was invented.
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China
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An island off China's southeast coast, historically linked to China and Japan.
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Taiwan
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A former Portuguese colony and now a Special Administrative Region of China.
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Macao
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A former British colony and Special Administrative Region of China known for trade.
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Hong Kong
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An island nation in East Asia with a long history of isolation and modernization.
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Japan
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The largest and most populous island of Japan.
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Honshu
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Japan’s northernmost main island, known for agriculture and cold climate.
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Hokkaido
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The southernmost main island of Japan, early center of foreign contact.
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Kyushu
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The smallest of Japan’s four main islands.
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Shikoku
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An island chain south of Japan, historically the Ryukyu Kingdom.
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Ryukyu Islands
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A peninsula divided today into North and South Korea with deep Confucian traditions.
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Korea
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A Korean dynasty (1392–1897) known for Neo-Confucian state ideology.
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Joseon (Choson)
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A group of Chinese-related languages and dialects.
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Sinitic Languages
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Logographic writing system used in Chinese and adapted by Japan and Korea.
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Chinese Characters
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The ethnic and national population of China, mainly Han Chinese.
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Chinese People
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The dominant ethnic group of China, forming over 90% of the population.
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Han-Chinese
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An ethnic minority group in southern China speaking a Tai language.
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Bouxcengh (Zhuang)
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A Muslim ethnic group in China who speak Chinese but follow Islam.
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Hui
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A Turkic Muslim ethnic group primarily in Xinjiang, China.
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Uighur
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An ethnic group from Tibet with distinct Buddhist culture.
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Tibetan
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A Central Asian people who established the Mongol Empire and later ruled China as Yuan.
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Mongols
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The ethnic group native to the Korean Peninsula.
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Korean People
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The Korean alphabet created in the 15th century under King Sejong.
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Hangul
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The ethnic majority of Japan, historically known as Yamato.
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Japanese People
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The ancient Japanese ethnic group and imperial lineage.
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Yamato
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Japan’s largest plain and agricultural heartland, including Tokyo.
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Kanto Plain
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A major Japanese plain containing Kyoto, Osaka, and Nara.
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Kansai Plain
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Chinese characters used in Japanese writing.
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Kanji
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A phonetic Japanese script used for native words and grammar.
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Hiragana
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A phonetic Japanese script mainly for foreign words.
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Katakana
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An ethnic group from northeast China who founded the Qing dynasty.
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Manchus
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China’s last imperial dynasty (1644–1912), ruled by the Manchus.
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Qing Empire
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A braided hairstyle imposed by the Qing dynasty as a symbol of loyalty.
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Queue
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The Chinese concept that the emperor ruled all under heaven (tianxia).
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Universal Emperorship
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A system for selecting officials in imperial China based on Confucian learning.
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Civil Service Exam
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The belief that government positions should be based on talent, not birth.
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Meritocratic Ideal
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The lowest degree in China’s imperial exam system.
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Budding Talent (xiucai)
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The middle degree in the imperial examination hierarchy.
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Elevated Person (juren)
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The highest degree in the imperial examination system.
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Presented Scholar (jinshi)
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The growth of market exchange and money economy in premodern East Asia.
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Commercialization
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The increased use of money instead of barter in economic life.
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Monetization
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The primary currency metal that linked China to global trade.
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Silver
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Rapid population increase in Qing China due to agricultural growth.
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Population Boom
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A diplomatic framework where states paid tribute to China acknowledging its superiority.
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Tributary System
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The worldview that China was the cultural center of civilization.
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Sinocentrism
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A Qing policy restricting foreign trade to Guangzhou (Canton).
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Canton System
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A failed 1793 British mission to open trade with Qing China.
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Macartney Embassy
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A narcotic traded by Britain in China, leading to the Opium Wars.
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Opium
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Qing official who attempted to suppress the opium trade.
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Lin Zexu
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British superintendent involved in the First Opium War.
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Charles Elliot
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Two wars (1839–1842, 1856–1860) over trade and sovereignty between China and Britain.
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Opium Wars
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Imbalanced treaties forced on China after military defeats.
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Unequal Treaties
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The 1842 treaty ending the First Opium War, ceding Hong Kong to Britain.
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Treaty of Nanjing
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Chinese ports opened to foreign trade after the Opium Wars.
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Treaty Ports
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Period (1842–1949) of foreign domination and internal crisis in China.
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Century of Humiliation
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The warrior class of feudal Japan who served lords with loyalty and upheld a strict honor code called bushidō.
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Bushi/Samurai
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Powerful feudal lords in Japan who controlled vast lands and private armies under the shogun’s authority.
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Daimyo
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A century-long era of civil war and social upheaval in Japan (c.1467–1600) before unification.
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Warring States Period/Sengoku Jidai
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The period of trade and cultural exchange between Japan and Europeans, especially the Portuguese, in the 16th century.
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Nanban Trade
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A powerful daimyo who began Japan’s unification by conquering rival warlords in the late 1500s.
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Oda Nobunaga
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Nobunaga’s successor who completed Japan’s unification and launched invasions of Korea.
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Hideyoshi Toyotomi
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Japan’s invasions of Korea (1592–1598) led by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, ultimately repelled by Korean and Ming forces.
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Imjin War
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The founder of the Tokugawa Shogunate who unified Japan after winning the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600.
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Tokugawa Ieyasu
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Japan’s military government from 1603 to 1868 that maintained peace through strict social order and isolation.
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Tokugawa Shogunate/Edo Period
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The Tokugawa government’s policy of national isolation restricting foreign trade and contact from 1639–1853.
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Sakoku Policy
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Western scientific and technical knowledge brought to Japan through limited contact with the Dutch at Dejima.
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Dutch Learning
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The growth of cities and merchant culture during the Edo Period as economic activity expanded.
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Urbanization
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The 1853–54 mission by U.S. Commodore Matthew Perry that forced Japan to open its ports to foreign trade.
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Perry Expedition
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The 1854 agreement between Japan and the U.S. ending Japan’s isolation and opening two ports to American ships.
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Treaty of Kanagawa
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The charismatic leader of the Taiping Rebellion who claimed to be the brother of Jesus Christ.
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Hong Xiuquan
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A massive 19th-century rebellion in China against the Qing dynasty inspired by Christian utopian ideals.
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Taiping Civil War
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The religious followers of Hong Xiuquan who formed the core of the Taiping movement.
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God Worshippers
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A wave of social uprisings in 19th-century China challenging Qing rule amid population and economic crises.
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Mid-Century Rebellions
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The process of organizing society around armed power and local militias during China’s internal unrest.
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Militarization
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A Confucian scholar-official who organized the Xiang Army and helped suppress the Taiping Rebellion.
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Zeng Guofan
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Locally raised armed groups formed to defend regions when the Qing central army weakened.
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Militias
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A regional army organized by Zeng Guofan in Hunan that became key in defeating the Taiping forces.
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Xiang Army
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The shift of power from the Qing central government to regional military and political leaders.
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Decentralization
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Original historical documents or firsthand accounts used for scholarly interpretation of past events.
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Primary Sources
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A major Japanese port city opened to foreign trade after the 1854 Treaty of Kanagawa.
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Yokohama
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Foreign residents in treaty-port Japan (Britain, U.S., France, Netherlands, Russia) during the late Tokugawa era.
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People of Five Nations
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Economic strain in Japan’s final shogunate years due to trade imbalance and social unrest.
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Late Tokugawa Economic Crisis
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A nationalist slogan advocating imperial loyalty and resistance to foreign influence.
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Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians (Sonno Joi)
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Popular street celebrations and social disorder in late-Tokugawa Japan expressing frustration and hope for change.
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What the Hell?/Ee ja nai ka?
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Loyalist samurai activists who sought to overthrow the Tokugawa regime and restore imperial rule.
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Warriors of Resolve/Shishi
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The 1860 killing of the Tokugawa official who signed unequal treaties, symbolizing anti-foreign anger.
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Assassination of Ii Naosuke
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The emperor who presided over Japan’s rapid modernization and westernization beginning in 1868.
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Meiji Emperor
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The 1868 political revolution that restored imperial rule and began Japan’s modernization.
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Meiji Restoration
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The civil war (1868–1869) between pro-imperial and shogunate forces leading to the Meiji government’s victory.
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Boshin War
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The concept of Japan’s divine national essence centered on the emperor and unity of the people.
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National Body/Kokutai
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The small group of Meiji leaders who guided Japan’s early modernization and government policy.
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Oligarchs/Genro
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A Japanese diplomatic journey (1871–73) to study Western institutions and negotiate treaty revisions.
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Iwakura Mission
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A Meiji statesman who drafted Japan’s constitution and served as the country’s first prime minister.
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Ito Hirubumi
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A Meiji reformer and diplomat who promoted industrialization and foreign relations.
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Inoue Kaoru
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A military leader who built Japan’s modern army and advanced the “Rich Country, Strong Army” policy.
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Yamagata Aritomo
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The Meiji slogan linking economic modernization with national military strength.
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Rich Country, Strong Army/Fukoku Kyohei
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A conflict (1856–1860) in which Britain and France forced China to expand trade and diplomatic privileges.
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Second Opium War
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The 1860 destruction of Beijing’s imperial palace by British and French troops during the Second Opium War.
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Burning of the Summer Palace
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The powerful Qing regent who dominated Chinese politics from 1861 to 1908.
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Empress Dowager Cixi
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A Qing ruler (r.1861–1875) under Cixi’s regency who presided during early reform attempts.
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Tongzhi Emperor
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The Qing emperor who supported the Hundred Days’ Reform but was later placed under house arrest by Cixi.
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Guangxu Emperor
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A 19th-century Chinese reform effort to modernize industry and the military using Western technology.
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Self-Strengthening Movement
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A leading Qing official and diplomat involved in modernization and negotiating with foreign powers.
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Li Hongzhang
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China’s first railway, built near Shanghai in 1876 but soon dismantled due to local opposition.
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Wusong Railway
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An ancient Chinese waterway linking north and south China, vital for grain transport and trade.
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The Grand Canal
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A late-Qing shipping enterprise promoting Chinese control over domestic trade routes.
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Chinese Merchant's Navigation Company
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The Korean kingdom (1392–1897) known for its Confucian government and cultural achievements.
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Joseon
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The hereditary scholar-official elite class in Joseon Korea who dominated politics and society.
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Yangban
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The final king and first emperor of Korea who sought to modernize amid foreign pressure.
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King Gojong
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Influential Korean queen advocating modernization and closer ties with China, assassinated by Japanese agents.
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Queen Min
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The conservative regent who ruled for King Gojong and resisted foreign influence.
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Heungseon Daewongun/Regent, Yi Ha-eung
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A failed 1866 French punitive mission in response to persecution of missionaries in Korea.
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French Expedition to Korea
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The 1866 destruction of an American ship in Korea, escalating foreign tensions.
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USS General Sherman Incident
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The 1871 U.S. naval attack on Korean forts after failed diplomacy, known as the Shinmiyangyo.
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American Expedition to Korea
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Japan’s 1876 military show of force that led to Korea’s opening to trade.
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Japanese Expedition to Korea
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The 1876 treaty forcing Korea to open ports to Japan, modeled on Western unequal treaties.
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Treaty of Ganghwa
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Japan’s 1879 incorporation of the Ryukyu Kingdom as Okinawa Prefecture.
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Annexation of Ryukyu Islands
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Japan’s formal integration of Hokkaido, promoting settlement and indigenous Ainu assimilation.
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Annexation of Hokkaido
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Japan’s 1874 punitive mission to Taiwan marking early overseas military activity.
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Taiwan Expedition
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Japan’s strategy of imitating Western imperial models to gain equal status among world powers.
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Mimetic Imperialism
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A Meiji slogan promoting Westernization, education, and social reform.
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Civilization and Enlightenment/bunmei kaika
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Large family-controlled industrial conglomerates that dominated Japan’s modern economy.
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Zaibatsu
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Japan’s first government-run silk factory symbolizing early industrialization.
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Tomioka Silk Mill
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The historical condition of rapid industrial, social, and cultural transformation in the 19th–20th centuries.
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Modernity
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Hostility and violence toward Christian converts and missionaries in late Qing China.
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Anti-Christian Sentiment
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1870 anti-foreign riot in Tianjin that killed missionaries and Chinese Christians, worsening Sino-French relations.
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Tianjin Massacre
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1884–1885 conflict between China and France over control of Vietnam, ending in French victory.
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Sino-French War
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A nationalist Vietnamese force allied with the Qing army during the Sino-French War.
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Black Banner Army
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1882 Korean soldier uprising protesting corruption and delayed pay, targeting pro-Japanese officials.
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Imo Riots
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1884 failed reformist coup in Korea inspired by Japanese modernization.
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Kapsin Coup
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Chinese general and later president of the Republic of China known for militarization and authoritarian rule.
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Yuan Shikai
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1894 peasant rebellion in Korea inspired by Donghak religious teachings and opposition to corruption.
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Donghak Rebellion
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1894–1896 Korean reform program aimed at modernizing administration and abolishing class distinctions.
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Gabo Reforms
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1895 murder of Queen Min by Japanese agents to eliminate anti-Japanese influence in Korea.
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Assassination of Queen Min
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1894–1895 war between China and Japan over influence in Korea, resulting in Japan's victory.
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Sino-Japanese War
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1895 treaty ending the Sino-Japanese War, granting Taiwan and Liaodong Peninsula to Japan.
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Treaty of Shimonoseki
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1898 short-lived reform movement in Qing China attempting rapid modernization and constitutional government.
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Hundred Days of Reform
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1899–1901 anti-foreign uprising in China opposing imperialist and Christian influence.
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Boxer Rebellion
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Secret Chinese society that led anti-foreign violence during the Boxer Rebellion.
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Boxers
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Alliance of eight foreign powers that intervened militarily to suppress the Boxer Rebellion.
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Eight Powers Alliance
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1901 treaty forcing Qing China to pay heavy indemnities and allow foreign troops in Beijing.
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Boxer Protocol
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Late 19th-century Korean reform efforts aimed at modernizing administration and industry.
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Gwangmu Reforms
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Korea's rebranded state (1897–1910) asserting full sovereignty under Emperor Gojong.
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Empire of Korea
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1902 defensive alliance between Britain and Japan recognizing Japan's interests in East Asia.
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Anglo-Japanese Alliance
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Russian-built railway across Manchuria connecting to Vladivostok, symbolizing imperial competition.
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Chinese Eastern Railway
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Region of northeast China coveted by Russia and Japan for its resources and strategic position.
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Manchuria
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1904–1905 war between Russia and Japan over control of Manchuria and Korea.
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Russo-Japanese War
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1905 treaty brokered by the U.S. ending the Russo-Japanese War, recognizing Japan's dominance in Korea.
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Treaty of Portsmouth
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1905 Tokyo riot protesting the perceived weakness of the Treaty of Portsmouth.
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Hibiya Riot
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1905 agreement making Korea a Japanese protectorate under supervision of a Resident General.
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Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905
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Japanese administrative official overseeing Korea during its protectorate period (1905–1910).
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Resident General of Korea
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1907 forced abdication of Korean Emperor Gojong after protest against Japanese domination.
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Abdication of King Gojong
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1910 formal annexation of Korea by Japan, beginning 35 years of colonial rule.
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Annexation of Korea
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Political ideology emphasizing loyalty to the nation and collective identity.
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Nationalism
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Last emperor of China and final Qing monarch, later puppet ruler of Manchukuo.
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Puyi (Emperor Xuantong)
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Early 20th-century reform document outlining constitutional government for the Qing Empire.
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Principles of the Constitution
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Late Qing reforms introducing modern education, military, and legal systems.
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Qing New Policies
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Revolutionary alliance founded by Sun Yat-sen advocating the overthrow of the Qing dynasty.
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The League (Tongmeng Hui)
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Revolutionary leader and founding father of the Republic of China.
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Dr. Sun Yat-sen
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1911 revolution ending Qing rule and establishing the Republic of China.
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Republican Revolution (Xinhai Revolution)
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1911 military uprising in Wuhan that triggered the fall of the Qing dynasty.
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Wuchang Uprising
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1911 Chinese protest movement against government plans to nationalize railways.
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Railway Protection Movement
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Successor state to the Qing Empire established in 1912.
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Republic of China
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Symbolic slogan promoting unity among China's five main ethnic groups.
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Five Races under One Flag
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Chinese warlord and politician who became provisional president of the Republic of China.
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Yuan Shikai
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Chinese nationalist political party founded by Sun Yat-sen, later led by Chiang Kai-shek.
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Nationalist Party (Kuomintang/Guomindang; KMT/GMD)
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1913 election for China's first national assembly under the Republic.
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National Assembly Election of 1913
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1913 assassination of reformist politician Song Jiaoren, undermining China's early democracy.
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Assassination of Song Jiaoren
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Yuan Shikai's short-lived attempt (1915–1916) to restore monarchy in China.
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The Empire of China
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Period (1916–1928) of regional fragmentation and military rule in post-imperial China.
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The Warlord Era
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Collective farming practiced by village communities sharing land and labor.
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Communal Farming
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Silk production through the cultivation of silkworms.
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Sericulture
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System where farmers rent land from landlords, often under exploitative conditions.
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Tenant Farming
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Property owner who rents land but lives elsewhere.
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Absentee Landlord
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Small-scale home-based manufacturing industries.
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Cottage Industries
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Financial obligation or burden resulting in loss of property or land.
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Debt
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Loss of property or land ownership, often due to debt or reform.
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Dispossession
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Growth of cities and migration of rural populations into urban centers.
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Urbanization
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Farming on small, family-owned plots of land.
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Small Hold Farming
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Extended family organization managing shared property and enterprises.
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Corporate Lineage
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Shortage of cultivable land relative to population size.
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Land Scarcity
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Movement of people, often for labor or economic opportunity.
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Migration
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Extraction of natural materials from colonies or rural regions for export.
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Raw Resource Extraction
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Collapse of local governance and public institutions during political turmoil.
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Breakdown of Institutions and Governance
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Major waterway linking northern and southern China for transport and trade.
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Grand Canal
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State grain reserves established to stabilize prices and prevent famine.
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Ever-Normal Granaries
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Massive famine (1876–1879) caused by drought and mismanagement in North China.
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The North China Famine
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Illegal trade in salt, evading government monopoly taxes.
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Salt Smuggling
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Areas beyond effective state control, often home to marginalized groups.
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Stateless Spaces
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Expansion of urban areas and development of new city infrastructure.
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Urbanization
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State institution responsible for maintaining law and order in cities.
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Police
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Government-funded schooling system introduced during modernization.
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Public Education
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Railway stations symbolizing industrial modernization and mobility.
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Train Stations
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Human-pulled two-wheeled vehicle used for urban transport.
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Rickshaw
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Early electric or horse-drawn urban tram system.
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Street Car
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Violent protests against rising streetcar fares and urban inequality.
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Street Car Riots
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Foreign-controlled zones within Chinese cities under extraterritorial privileges.
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Concessions
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Land leased to foreign powers for trade and settlement.
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Leasehold
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Region under political and economic dominance of a foreign power.
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Sphere of Influence
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Northern Chinese port city with strong foreign presence.
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Tianjin
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Manchurian city developed by Russians as a railway hub.
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Ha'erbin
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Strategic Manchurian port city under Russian then Japanese control.
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Dalian
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Small island used by foreign merchants and missionaries near treaty ports.
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Piano Island
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Yangtze River treaty port opened to foreign trade.
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Jiujiang
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Major Chinese port city central to trade, foreign settlements, and modernization.
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Shanghai
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Internationally governed district in Shanghai under foreign law.
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International Settlement
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French-controlled district of Shanghai established by treaty.
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French Concession
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Traditional walled section of Shanghai inhabited mainly by Chinese.
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Old Chinese City
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Foreign traders and entrepreneurs operating in Chinese treaty ports.
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Foreign Merchants
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Legal and social advantages enjoyed by foreigners in China.
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Racial Privileges
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Chinese intermediaries who managed trade between foreigners and locals.
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Compradors
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Wealthy, educated middle class emerging from trade and industry.
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Bourgeoisie
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Rural or urban workers who moved for temporary or seasonal employment.
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Migrant Laborers
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Overcrowded, impoverished urban residential areas.
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Slums
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Narrow residential alleyways typical of Shanghai architecture.
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Lilong Alleys
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Young women working in textile or silk factories.
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Factory Girls (joko)
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Industrial workshops producing silk thread for export.
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Silk Filatures
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Formation of worker organizations to demand better labor conditions.
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Unionization
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Early sound recording device used for entertainment and education.
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Phonograph
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New forms of mass entertainment through recorded or live music.
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Popular Music
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Fashionable, independent young woman symbolizing modernity in 1920s Japan.
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Modern Girl
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Urban male counterpart to the Modern Girl, representing Westernized youth culture.
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Modern Boy
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Staple East Asian grain forming the basis of most diets.
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Rice
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Mechanized process improving rice milling efficiency in Japan.
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Steam-powered Rice Polishing Mills
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Expression of national identity through distinctive food culture.
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Gastro-Nationalism
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Meat from cattle, symbolizing Western influence and affluence.
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Beef
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Milk and dairy products introduced from Western diets.
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Dairy
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High-quality Japanese beef known for marbling and tenderness.
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Wagyu
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1872 imperial banquet introducing Western dishes to Japanese elite.
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Meiji Emperor's New Year's Banquet of 1872
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Japanese beef hotpot dish developed during early Westernization.
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Gyunabe
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Japanese dish similar to sukiyaki, featuring thinly sliced beef and vegetables.
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Sukiyaki
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Japanese adaptation of Western-style cuisine.
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Yoshoku
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Western-style coffeehouse popular in modern Japan.
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Kissaten
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Japanese-style hamburger steak.
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Hambaagu
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American fast-food chain symbolizing globalization of Japanese diet.
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McDonalds
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Breaded and deep-fried pork cutlet popularized in Japan.
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Tonkatsu
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Famous Japanese condiment brand associated with fried foods.
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Bull Dog Sauce
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Grilled meat dish derived from Korean barbecue traditions.
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Yakiniku
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Urban district associated with Korean communities in Japan.
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Korea Town
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Traditional Korean cuisine as perceived in Japan.
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Joseon Food (Choson Ryori)
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Japanese dish of rice with curry sauce, adapted from British naval recipes.
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Curry Rice
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Curry served in the Japanese navy as part of military rations.
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Navy Curry
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Popular instant curry brand symbolizing postwar convenience food.
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Golden Curry
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Japanese noodle soup adapted from Chinese styles.
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Ramen
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Early Japanese term for Chinese-style noodles.
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Shina Soba
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Districts within Japanese cities with concentrations of Chinese residents.
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Chinatown
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1958 instant noodle invention that revolutionized global fast food.
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Instant Chikin Ramen
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Portable instant noodle product popular worldwide.
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Cup of Noodles
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Inventor of instant noodles and founder of Nissin Foods.
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Ando Momofuku
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