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Answer
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A dense infantry formation used by Macedonian armies, featuring soldiers armed with long spears (sarissas) and supported by cavalry.
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Phalanx
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A Greek island where a brutal civil conflict between democrats and oligarchs led to mass violence, vividly described by Thucydides as an example of civil strife (stasis).
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Corcyra
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The Bactrian noblewoman whom Alexander married in 327 BCE to secure loyalty in Central Asia.
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Roxane
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A northern Greek kingdom that rose to power under Philip II and conquered the Greek city-states in the 4th century BCE.
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Macedon/Macedonia
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Elite cavalry and noble companions of the Macedonian king who served as top officers and formed a key striking force in battle.
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royal companions
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A major temple to Athena on the Athenian Acropolis, built in the 5th century BCE, known for its blend of Doric and Ionic architectural styles.
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Parthenon
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A naval alliance formed in the 4th century BCE by Athens and its allies to counter Spartan power, promising autonomy and no tribute.
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Second Athenian League
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The 333 BCE battle where Alexander first defeated Darius III, forcing the Persian king to flee and abandon his army.
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Battle of Issus
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A trilogy by Aeschylus that explores justice, revenge, and the establishment of legal order in Greek society.
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Oresteia
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A city on Lesbos that revolted against Athens; the assembly initially voted for mass execution but ultimately spared most inhabitants except the leaders.
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Mytilene
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An Athenian trade sanction (c. 432 BCE) that banned a Peloponnesian League member from Athenian ports, escalating tensions before the Peloponnesian War.
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Megarian Decree
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The undeclared conflict (460–445 BCE) between Athens and Sparta made up of intermittent fighting; considered a precursor to the more famous later war.
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"First" Peloponnesian War
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A charismatic and controversial Athenian general and politician who pushed for aggressive war policies and sought personal glory, often shifting allegiances.
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Alcibiades
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A 451 BCE law restricting Athenian citizenship to those with two Athenian parents, increasing exclusivity and reducing intermarriage with other poleis.
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Citizenship Law of 451
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A Greek philosopher and student of Plato who founded the Lyceum and emphasized empirical observation, classification, and teleology (purpose in nature).
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Aristotle
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The dominant Athenian statesman from about 461–429 BCE who led policy during wars against Persia and Sparta and helped expand democracy and empire.
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Pericles
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A philosophical dialogue by Plato that explores justice, including the idea of whether people act morally if they could act unjustly without consequences.
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The Republic
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A wealthy and cautious Athenian general and politician associated with peace efforts and conservative elites; opposed more aggressive figures like Cleon.
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Nicias
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A leading Athenian orator who urged resistance against Macedon and delivered speeches known as the “Philippics.”
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Demosthenes
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A Persian court ritual involving bowing or prostration before the king, which Greeks resisted as inappropriate for mortals.
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Proskynesis
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King of Macedon (r. 359–336 BCE) who reformed the army and conquered Greece, laying the groundwork for his son’s empire.
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Philip II
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An elite Theban military unit of 150 pairs of male lovers whose cohesion helped defeat Sparta at Leuctra.
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Sacred Band
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A Persian satrap in western Anatolia who played a key role in funding Sparta during the later stages of the Peloponnesian War.
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Tissaphernes
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Resident foreigners in Athens who lacked citizenship and political rights but participated in society and the economy; could not own land or represent themselves legally.
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Metic
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A neutral island conquered by Athens in 416 BCE; its men were executed and women and children enslaved after refusing to join the Athenian empire.
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Melos
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The Theban leaders who defeated Sparta at Leuctra (371 BCE), using innovative tactics that broke Spartan military dominance.
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Epaminondas, Pelopidas
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A city that was both a member of the Athenian alliance and a Corinthian colony; its revolt led to an Athenian siege and increased conflict with Corinth.
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Potidaea
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A Greek philosopher, student of Socrates, who developed the theory of Forms to explain the underlying reality behind appearances.
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Plato
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Spartan admiral who allied with the Persian prince Cyrus and used Persian funding to build a fleet that ultimately defeated Athens.
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Lysander
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Democratic changes in Athens (mid-5th century BCE) that reduced the power of the Areopagus and transferred authority to the assembly, council, and courts; followed by the reformer’s assassination.
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Reforms of Ephialtes
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A colony of Corcyra whose internal conflict led it to seek help from Corinth, intensifying hostility between Corinth and Corcyra before the Peloponnesian War.
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Epidamnus
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A conflict (395–387 BCE) where Athens, Thebes, and Corinth allied against Spartan dominance, with key Persian involvement and fighting near Corinth.
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Corinthian War
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The ceremonial capital of the Persian Empire that Alexander looted and burned as an act of symbolic revenge.
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Persepolis
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Traveling intellectuals in 5th-century BCE Greece who taught rhetoric and challenged traditional beliefs, often criticized by Plato for valuing persuasion over truth.
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Sophist
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Son of Miltiades and a key Athenian general who led victories against Persia, pushed them out of the Aegean, and later negotiated a temporary truce with Sparta after exile.
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Cimon
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The last king of the Persian Empire who was defeated by Alexander in multiple battles and later killed while fleeing.
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Darius III
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A foreign woman in Athens whose attempt to pass as a citizen led to a famous court case involving illegal citizenship and marriage.
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Neaera
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A legendary knot said to grant rule over Asia to whoever untied it; Alexander famously solved it by cutting through it.
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Gordian knot
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An Athenian rhetorician who promoted the idea of uniting Greece to wage war against Persia and saw Philip II as a potential leader of this cause.
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Isocrates
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A fortified Athenian outpost in the Peloponnese established during the war, which led to a major Spartan crisis when their soldiers were trapped nearby.
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Pylos
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A classical Athenian philosopher known for questioning others through dialogue (the “Socratic method”) and emphasizing moral virtue over wealth or power.
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Socrates
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The oracle in the Egyptian desert that Alexander visited, where he may have been recognized as divine or as son of a god.
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Zeus-Ammon
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The fortified “upper city” of a Greek polis, often a religious center; the most famous example in Athens was rebuilt with temples like the Parthenon in the 5th century BCE.
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Acropolis
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The 445 BCE treaty between Athens and Sparta that set rules like non-interference with allies and arbitration, but ultimately failed well before its intended duration.
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Thirty Years' Peace
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A type of Athenian colony where settlers kept their citizenship and acted as military garrisons, often established on land taken from rebellious allies.
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Cleruchy
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The island where Spartan hoplites were stranded and eventually captured by Athens, shocking the Greek world and forcing Sparta to seek peace.
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Sphacteria
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The 338 BCE battle where Philip II of Macedon defeated a coalition of Greek city-states, ending their independence.
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Battle of Chaeronea
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The successor to Herodotus, ______ wrote a history of the Peloponnesian War.
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Thucydides
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The Macedonian king (r. 336–323 BCE), taught by Aristotle, who created a vast empire by conquering Persia.
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Alexander the Great
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The decisive 331 BCE battle where Alexander defeated Darius III, gaining control of the Persian Empire.
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Battle of Gaugamela
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The central public space of a Greek city-state that functioned as both marketplace and political hub; key site for news, business, and discussion.
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Agora
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The alliance created by Philip II after 338 BCE to unify most Greek states (except Sparta) under Macedonian leadership and enforce peace.
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Corinthian League
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A prominent Athenian demagogue (d. 422 BCE) known for advocating harsh policies and appealing to popular opinion rather than elite values.
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Cleon
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The decisive naval battle in 405 BCE where Sparta, led by Lysander, destroyed nearly the entire Athenian fleet, effectively ending the Peloponnesian War.
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Aegospotami
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A major city founded in Egypt by Alexander the Great, which became a center of Greek culture and learning.
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Alexandria
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A major Sicilian city where Athens suffered a catastrophic defeat (413 BCE), destroying its fleet and weakening its empire.
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Syracuse
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A naval power that allied with Athens in 433 BCE to avoid defeat by Corinth, helping spark tensions that led to the Peloponnesian War.
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Corcyra
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A Persian satrap who assassinated Darius III and briefly claimed the throne before being captured and executed by Alexander.
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Bessus
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A confederacy formed in 477 BCE after the Persian Wars under Athenian leadership, originally for defense against Persia but gradually turned into an Athenian empire as members were forced to stay.
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Delian League
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The oligarchic regime installed in Athens after its defeat in 404 BCE, known for executions and repression before being overthrown.
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Thirty Tyrants
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