AQA A-level Psychology Paper 3 all the names

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Schizophrenia

Tested the inter-rater reliability for diagnosis of Sz using the DSM-V. Found a Kappa score of 0.46 (0.7 is minimum for reliability).

Regier et al

Assessed the test-retest reliability of a cognitive screening test as a way of diagnosing Sz. Used 181 patients with intervals from 1-134 days. Found correlation of 0.84 (high).

Wilk et al

Gave 134 US and 194 UK psychologists a patient's description. 69% of the US diagnosed Sz, yet only 2% for UK. Shows DSM-V may be ethnocentric.

Copeland (1971)

Showed symptoms are unreliable. Delusions are supposedly "bizarre". 50 psychiatrists were asked to differentiate between bizarre and non-bizarre delusions, inter-rater reliability was 0.4.

Mojtabai & Nicholson

Suggests low validity due to symptom overlap. Found people with DID have more Sz symptoms, than people actually diagnosed with Sz.

Ellason & Ross (1995)

Estimated co-morbid depression occurs in 50% of Sz patients and 47% have a lifetime diagnosis of substance abuse. Questions if they should be considered separate illnesses or just one.

Buckley et al (2009)

Reviewed studies of Sz, found men are more likely to be diagnosed, despite DSM-V criteria being based on healthy adult male. Female patients may be able to function better with Sz, so don't get diagnosed. Gender biased validity issues.

Longenecker et al (2010)

Found individual differences in prognosis. Found 20% of patients fully recover, 10% have lasting improvement, 30% show improvement but relapse and some never recover. Lack of predictive validity.

Bentall et al

Family study, found the closer the genetic relationship between someone with Sz and a family member, the greater the risk of developing Sz. Concordance rates for Dz = 17%, Mz = 48%, compared to 1% in general population.

Gottesman (1991)

Twin study, collated data for all twin studies prior to 2001, found concordance rate of 40.4% for Mz, and 7.4% for Dz.

Joseph (2004)

Adoption study in Finland. Found out of 164 adoptees whose biological mothers had Sz, 11 of them (6.7%) also received a diagnosis. Compared to 197 control adoptees, of which only 4 (2%) received a diagnosis. This is still higher than general population, possibly due to trauma.

Tienari et al

Regarding the dopamine hypothesis, stated that problems with attention, perception and thoughts in those with Sz may be due to disturbances in the dopamine process. NOTE: this fella didn't come up with the theory.

Comer (2003)

Developed upon the dopamine hypothesis to suggest the role of hypodopaminergia. Identified a role for low levels of dopamine in the prefrontal cortex in the negative symptoms of Sz.

Goldman-Rakic et al (2004)

Supports dopamine hypothesis. Antipsychotics are dopamine antagonists and help limit positive symptoms. Carried out a meta-analysis of 212 studies, all drugs tested were more effective than placebos.

Leucht et al (2013)

Contradicts the above. Found antipsychotics only reduce symptoms for about 1/3 patients. Also found many patients had Sz despite normal levels of dopamine.

Noll (2009)

Reviewed studies and found Clozapine (an atypical antipsychotic) was more effective than typical antipsychotics, including 30-50% of cases where symptoms were treatment resistant.

Meltzer (2012)

Followed on from Freud's work, believed disordered family patterns were a cause of Sz. Said schizophrenogenic mothers are rejecting, cold, controlling, over-protective, dominant and moralistic. This leads to tension and secrecy, which causes distrust and possibly paranoid illusions.

Fromm-Reichman (1948)

Came up with double bind theory. Said children who frequently receive contradictory messages from parents are at risk of developing Sz. It prevents the child from developing an internal coherent construction of reality. Long run = delusions.

Bateson et al (1956)

Found that a patient returning to a family with high expressed emotions (EE) are 4x more likely to relapse than those who return to a family with low EE.

Linszen et al (1997)

Found people with Sz reported a higher recall of double bind statements by their mothers than non-schizophrenics.

Berger (1956)

Evidence against double bind. Measured patterns of parental communications in families with a Sz child and found no difference compared to typical families.

Liem (1974)

Proposed an attention deficit theory and identified two types of dysfunctional thought processing: dysfunctional metarepresentation and dysfunctional central control.

Frith et al

Gave Sz patients a Stroop test - where pps have to name the colour a word is written in. Sz patients took twice as long as control group. Suggests Sz patients have faulty thought processing.

Stirling et al (2006)

Weakness of attention deficit theory is it only looks at cognitive factors. Put forward an integrated model and argued early vulnerabilities like stress, combined with genetics, leads to sensitivity in dopamine system. This causes biased cognitive processing, which leads to delusions + hallucinations.

Howes & Murray

Support for CBT. What's the name of the study that found, when compared with antipsychotics, CBT is effective in reducing rehospitalisation rates up to 18 months after treatment.

The NICE review (2014)

Found CBT had greater treatment results and lower drop out rates when patients were also taking antipsychotic medication.

Kuipers et al (1997)

Identified strategies to reduce EE when using family therapy: forming therapeutic alliance with family members, reducing stress of a relative caring for Sz member, improving ability to anticipate and solve problems, reduction in anger and guilt, helping family achieve balance between care and own life, improving understanding of Sz.

Pharoah (2010)

This review found family therapy used with drugs saves money due to reduced rehospitalisation and relapse rates.

the NICE review (2014)

Found patients receiving family therapy were less likely to relapse after 2 years than patients not receiving this treatment.

Hogarty et al (1986)

Reviewed 13 studies where a token economy was used in a psychiatric setting. 11/13 studies reported positive effects in adaptive behaviours for patients. However, lots of these studies have methodological issues, like small samples or a lack of a control group.

Dickerson et al (2005)

Proposed original diathesis stress model, suggested Sz's diathesis was entirely genetic and caused by a single gene (schizogene). Led to the idea that there's one personality type (schizotypal) that is susceptible to Sz. If someone has this gene, stress in childhood causes Sz

Meehl

Suggested an interactionist approach would accept a biological cause, but still use psychological treatments like CBT alongside antipsychotics.

Turkington et al (2006)

145 adoptees with Sz mothers, control of 158 adoptees. 14/303 developed Sz over the study. 11/14 were from high risk group. Adoptive parents with high levels of conflict and low levels of empathy were implicated in causing Sz for high risk group, but not for low risk group. Supports interactionist approach.

Tienari et al

Randomly allocated 315 patients to 3 groups: 1.medication+CBT, 2.medication+supportive counselling, 3.control group (medication only). Patients in combined groups showed lower symptom levels, but no difference in relapse rate.

Tarrier et al

Forensics

US organisation that developed the top-down approach for offender profiling. Involves data assimilation, crime scene classification, crime reconstruction, and profile generation.

FBI

Shows the above is useful. Examined data for 100 murders in USA, with reference to characteristics of organised and disorganised offenders. Found evidence for distinct organised type. However, not for disorganised type.

Canter et al (2004)

Suggests it's outdated to think a person's personality isn't affected by external factors, suggesting top-down has poor predictive validity.

Alison et al (2002)

Developed the bottom-up approach, which includes investigative psychology (interpersonal coherence, time and place, forensic awareness) and geographical profiling (crime mapping, centre of gravity, jeopardy's surface, and his circle theory).

Canter

Support for investigative psychology. Content analysis of 66 sexual assault cases, looking for correlations across patterns of behaviour, using a statistical analysis computer program. Found common characteristics like language used towards victim.

Canter & Heritage

Found bottom-up doesn't always work. Surveyed 48 police forces, found 83% of officers said having a profiler was useful, but only led to accurate identification of offender in 3% of cases.

Copson (1995)

Argued many predictions in profiles are ambiguous. Gave 2 groups of detectives the same profile, but each group was given details of 2 very different offenders. In each group, 75% rated profile as somewhat accurate and 50% as generally/very accurate. Suggests police are adding meaning to what are ambiguous statements - Barnum effect

Alison (2003)

Developed atavistic form. Examined cranial and facial features of Italian criminals, 3839 living and 383 dead. Anthropometry - took precise measurements of skills and other characteristics, 40% of criminal acts could be accounted for by atavistic features.

Lombroso

Contradicts above. Compared 3000 criminals and 3000 non-criminals. Concluded offenders have no unusual facial or cranial characteristics, but do have low intelligence.

Goring (1913)

Support for role of genetics. looked at 3586 twin pairs in Denmark. Concordance rate for criminality was 52% for Mz, and 22% for Dz.

Christiansen (1977)

Support for role of genetics. Found adopted children with a biological mother with a criminal record had a 50% chance of having a criminal record by 18, compared to 5% for adopted children whose mother didn't have a criminal record.

Crowe (1972)

Support for candidate genes. Analysis of nearly 900 offenders in Finland. Revealed abnormalities in 2 genes may be linked to violent crime: MAOA gene (controls serotonin and dopamine in brain and linked to aggression), CDH13 (linked to substance abuse and attention deficit disorder). Those with both were 13x more likely to have a history of violent behaviour.

Tiihonen et al (2014)

Neural explanation. Conducted many brain imaging studies on people with antisocial personality disorder (APB - psychopathy), which showed they have reduced activity in prefrontal cortex, which is believed to regulate emotion.

Raine et al (1997)

Found only when criminals with APD were asked to empathise with a person experiencing pain in a film, did their empathy reaction activate (measured by activation of mirror neurons).

Keysers et al (2011)

Theory of a criminal personality. Represented along 2 dimensions: inro/extroversion (E), neuroticism/stability (N), then added a third: psychoticism (P). Measured using E... Personality Inventory (EPI).

Eysenck

Supports above. Compared 2070 male prisoner's scores on EPI to 2422 male controls. Sub-divided into age groups (16-69). Prisoners had higher scores on P, E, and N.

Eysenck & Eysenck (1977)

Also supports criminal personality. Gave EPI to 100 convicted inmates and 100 trade-based students aged 17-20. Social class was controlled for. Higher number of people with E, N and P personality types in delinquent group.

McGurk and Mcdougall (1981)

Contradicts the above. Reviewed 16 studies, found prisoners scored higher on P and N, but not E. Links to very little evidence of differences between introverts and extroverts on EEGs.

Farrington et al (1982

Created levels of moral reasoning. Level1. Preconventional morality (stage1: punishment orientation, stage 2: instrumental orientation of personal gain). Level2. Conventional morality (stage3: good boy/girl orientation, stage4: maintenance of social order). Level3. Postconventional morality (stage5: morality of contract & individual rights, stage6: morality of conscience.

Kohlberg

Applied the above to criminal behaviour. Controlled for social background. Used moral dilemmas and found a group of violent youths were significantly lower in their moral development than non-violent youths.

Kohlberg et al (1973)

Evidence of hostile attribution bias. Showed 55 violent offenders images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions. Offenders more likely to perceive expressions as angry/hostile than control group.

Schonenberg & Jusyte (2014)

Evidence of minimalisation (egocentric bias and causal attributions). Found 54% of 26 rapists denied they had committed an offence at all, 40% minimised harm they caused.

Barbaree (1991)

Supports levels of moral reasoning. Compared 210 female non-offenders, 122 male non-offenders and 126 offenders. 11 moral dilemmas. Offenders showed less mature moral reasoning.

Palmer and Hollin (1998)

Suggested post conventional level of moral reasoning should be removed, since it's inconsistent across cultures, suggesting it has culture bias, which reduces validity.

Gibbs

Proposed differential association theory (a SLT). Includes prop-criminal attitudes and learning criminal acts.

Sutherland (1939)

Suggested if superego is underdeveloped or deficient, criminal behaviour would occur. 3 types of inadequate superego: weak/deviant/over harsh.

Blackburn (1993)

Maternal deprivation theory - 44 juvenile thieves. 14/44 were affectionless psychopaths. 12/14 had experienced prolonged separation from mothers during infancy, compared to only 2 in a non-criminal control group.

Bowlby

Contradicts above. Found maternal deprivation was a poor predictor of offending and the ability to form close relationships in adolescence. Can't say deprivation caused offending (correlation).

Lewis (1954)

Weakness of custodial sentencing. Conducted research in prisons, found they're "brutal, demeaning and devastating." Suicide rates are 15x higher than general population - main risk is males in first 24 hours.

Bartol (1995)

Developed token economies in 3 behavioural units for young delinquents. 4th unit was a control. Significant difference in positive behaviour compared to control.

Hobbs & Holt (1976)

Supports above, found token economies were generally effective with young people. But, some young people didn't respond to the tokens. These people were put on different program where they got rewarded immediately, results more positive.

Field et al (2004)

Suggested 3 stages to CBT anger management. 1.Cognitive preparation. 2.Skill acquisition. 3.Application practice.

Novaco

Supports above. Compared progress of 2 groups of offenders, one had anger management, other was a control. After 12 sessions, results assessed with interviews, behaviour checklist (by prison officers) and a questionnaire. 92% of treatment group showed improvement on at least one measurement, 48% improved on checklist and questionnaire. Control group had 0 improvement.

Ireland (2004)

Summarised trends - anger management has impact in short term, but has no impact on long term recidivism rates, possibly because role play is too artificial, so offenders can't apply what they've learnt to real life triggers.

Blackburn (1993)

Compared 36 studies of restorative justice with control group. Reductions in offending rates for violent + property crime. Victims reported lower levels of PTSD and all parties reported greater overall satisfaction than conventional justice.

Sherman & Strang (2007)

Gender

Evidence for sex role stereotypes. Wanted to find if new parents stereotype their babies. Parents were asked to describe their new babies within 24 hours after their birth. Baby boys were described as alert and strong, girls were described as soft and delicate.

Rubin et al (1974)

Evidence for sex role stereotypes. 3 month old dressed in yellow baby suit. 1/3 pps told baby was boy, 1/3 girl, 1/3 not told. Left to interact with baby 3 mins with toys (ball, rag-doll, or ring). Boy, pps more likely use ring. Girl, more likely use doll. No label, women interacted far more than males did, almost all pps decided on sex, justified by babies behaviour/characteristics.

Seavey et al (1975)

Created the BSRI as a systematic attempt to measure androgyny using a rating scale (1-7) of 60 traits to produce scores across 2 dimensions (masculinity-femininity and androgynous-undifferentiated). High scores in both masculine and feminine categories = androgynous.

Sandra Bem (1974)

Criticism from this person brought about change to the above after stating the BSRI didn't distinguish between androgyny and those who scored low in both masculine and feminine. Undifferentiated was then added to BSRI.

Spence et al (1975)

Showed BSRI lacks temporal validity. Asked 400 undergrads to rate items on BSRI as masc or fem. Only 2 terms still endorsed as masc or fem were the adjectives "masculine" and "feminine". All other terms failed to reach a 75% agreement level.

Hoffman & Borders (2001)

Claim gender is a more complicated concept than BSRI suggests. Personal traits and perceptions of abilities should be considered too.

Golombok & Fivush (1994)

Mr. Freaky guy who explains the development of gender occurs during phallic stage with Oedipus/Electra complex as children identify with same-sex parent and internalise their gender attitudes and behaviours.

Sigma Freud

Freud used Little Hans to show sons of harsh fathers develop a more robust gender identity due to higher anxiety. But these fellas found sons with more liberal fathers were more secure in their masculine gender identity.

Blakemore & Hill (2008)

Freud's theory relies on children having a parent of each gender. But this person found children with single parents develop typical gender identities.

Golombok (1983)

Criticised Freud's methods for being pseudoscientific as they refer to the unconscious mind, meaning they can't be tested/falsified.

Karl Popper (1959)

Theory of gender development. Believe children are egocentric until 6/7 and gain the ability of conservation at the same time. Stages: gender identity, stability, constancy

Kohlberg

Supports above. Children given split screen images of men and women doing same task. Younger children spent equal time watching both. Kids in constancy stage spent longer watching same-sex model, seeking gender appropriate models.

Slaby & Frey (1975)

Also supports above. Found gender development stages were the same in Belize, Kenya, American Samoa, and Nepal. Suggests lack of culture bias.

Munroe et al (1984)

Showed constancy stage can occur earlier. Found kids as young as 4 reported feeling good about playing with gender appropriate toys and bad about the opposite.

Bussey & Bandura (1992)

Gender schema theory (GST) states around 3, kids search for rules and create schemas about how males and females should behave, often formed around stereotypes. Schemas become more complex over time. By 6, kids have fairly fixed and stereotypical ideas about what's appropriate for their gender, disregard info conflicting with schema. Ingroup. Outgroup. Not until 8 that kids develop schema for both genders.

Martin & Halverson

Supports above. Found children under 6 more likely to recall photos of gender consistent behaviour than inconsistent when tested a week later. Often changed the sex of the person doing gender inconsistent behaviour.

Martin & Halverson (1983)

Support for SLT explanation. Study with 4-6 month olds. 1/2 dressed in boy's clothes, 1/2 in girl's clothes. When dressed as boy, adults gave hammer-shaped rattle and encouraged them to be adventurous. Girl given doll, told they were pretty. Reinforcement.

Smith & Lloyd (1978)

Suggests SLT changes with age. Although a child may observe a behaviour at an early age, selection and identification comes later.

Dubin (1992)

Case study showing biological factors are important. Botched circumcision led to parents raising him as a girl. Never felt happy as a girl, chose to live as a man when he learned about what happened. SLT may be reductionist.

David Reimer

Showed how media influences self efficacy. Found girls who watched a detective programme that challenged gender stereotypes, were much more likely to see themselves as capable of working outside the home.

Mitra et al (2019)

Natural experiment. Canadian town (Notel) receiving TV signals for first time. Used 2 more towns (Unitel and Multitel), and did surveys about gender behaviours in all 3 towns. All towns surveyed again 2 years later. Evidence of stereotypes had increased in Notel.

Williams et al (1986)

Studied TV ads, found men more likely shown in autonomous roles with professional contexts, women in familial roles. Shows media reinforces stereotypes.

Furnham & Farragher (2000)

Evidence of cross-cultural similarities. Found consistent patterns in mate preference in 37 countries. Women sought healthy, resourceful men. Men sought youth and physical attractiveness.

Buss (1995)

Evidence of cross-cultural similarities. Found division of labour is organised along gender lines in most societies.

Munroe & Munroe (1975)

Evidence of cross-cultural differences. Studied gender roles of tribal groups on Papua New Guinea and Samoa. Arapesh tribe: gentle and responsive (both genders). Mundugumor tribe: aggressive and hostile (both genders). Tchambuli: women were dominant and organised village life, men were passive and "decorative".

Margaret Mead (1935)

Suggested a way of reducing imposed etic by including at least one member of the local population within the research team.

Berry et al (2002)

Support for role of hormones. Found female rats injected with testosterone became more physically and sexually aggressive.

Nanne Van de Poll et al (1988)

Found girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) exhibited more tomboy gender attitudes than girls without.

Berenbaum & Bailey (2003)

Found boys with CAH showed significantly lower levels of rough play compared to boys without.

Hines

Support for role of testosterone. Studied transgenders undergoing hormone treatment. Male to female showed decrease in aggression and visuo-spatial skills. Female to male showed increase in aggression and visuo-spatial.

Van Goozen et al (1995)

Contradicts above. Double blind study, 43 males given either weekly testosterone injection or placebo. No significant difference after 10 weeks.

Tricker et al (1996)

Found size of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BSTc) in transgender women was similar to cisgender women. Suggests size of BSTc correlates with preferred sex, rather than biological.

Zhou et al (1995)

Found the number of neurons in the BSTc in transgender women was similar to cisgender women, and the number of neurons for transgender men was in the same range as cisgender men.

Kruijver et al (2000)

Evidence for a "transgender gene". Looked at DNA of 112 transgender women and found they were more likely to have a longer androgen receptor gene. This reduces the action of testosterone, which may impact gender development in the womb.

Hare et al (2009)

Suggested gender identity disorder (GID) is an innate form of phantom limb syndrome. Demonstrated this occurs because the brain is "cross-wired". Part of brain that received input from amputated limb is taken over by a different part of the body.

Ramachandran et al (1995)

Followed on from the above, proposed that the image of the opposite sex organs is innately hardwired in the brain. This makes some males feel they shouldn't have a penis, and some females feel they should.

Ramachandran and McGeoch (2007)

Psychoanalytic theory. Says GID in males is caused by extreme separation anxiety before gender identity has been established. Child fantasises of a symbiotic fusion with his mother to relieve anxiety. Adopts a female gender identity.

Ovesey and Person (1973)

Provides evidence for above. Interviewed GID males who he found displayed overly close mother-son relationships that would lead to greater female identification and feminised gender identity in the long-term.

Stoller (1975)

Contradictory evidence for BTSc research. Found transgender hormone therapy affects the size of BTSc, so observed differences may be a consequence of the therapy and not a cause of GID.

Hulshoff Pol et al (2006)

Issues with generalisability in GID. Studied 25 girls who had been diagnosed with GID in childhood. After 24 years, only 12% (3/25) still had GID.

Drummond et al (2008)

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