How We Perceive Information and Judge (4)

False Information Effect: People tend to stick with their ___ even if they turn out to be proven ___

FIE: Appears even when subjects are aware that the information given is ___

FIE: Recipients do not store information presented in the media as ___ facts. Instead, they make them ___ with reference to their previous ___ and ___

FIE: Recipients generate ___ explanations for events and facts that are reported in the media and only retain ___ information if a ___ alternative situation model is difficult or impossible to be constructed

FIE: If the new information can easily ___ the old information in the ___, there is no False Information Effect but recipients include information in a situation model if they consider this information to be ___. Information that ___ fit with existing beliefs can easily be corrected because it is usually not integrated into a ___ situation model

FIE: Typical Methodology

FIE Classic Study (When Misinformation in Memory Affects Later Inferences): Participants read a series of reports about a warehouse fire. Manipulated how ___ the correction appeared (delayed correction vs. immediate vs. no). After reading the messages, participants wrote down what they ___ and answered questions

FIE Classic Study Results: both experimental grups showed an influence of the ___ with no significant distance between them

FIE Limitations: lack of studies highlighting the differences between the FIE effect and other phenomena of judgment ___

Third-Person Effect: Describes people’s tendency to assume that other people (“third persons”) are considerably more ___ by messages in ___ than them

TPE: People tend to attribute the actions of other people to ___ factors while they ascribe their own actions to ___ factors. This could result in them attributing their reception of media to well-considered clues like ___, while other people are thought to be too ___ or ___

TPE: Self-Serving Bias: People strive to preserve a positive ___, often by ___

TPE: Biased optimism: People think they are less susceptible to ___ and ___ than others -> People could pertain their positive self-image by thinking they are not so easily ___

TPE: Typical Methodology

TPE Classic Study (What We Think Others Think): Manipulation; source ___ (high vs. low) vs. control group (did not read anything) and estimating the effect on ___ vs. others in their ___ vs. others in their ___ vs. others in their ___

TPE Classic Study Results: 2/3 thought others would be more ___, difference between the two sources is ___ in the socially "closer" groups

TPE: Limitations

Hostile Media Effect: Selective recall: for each side, the ___ information is more salient and therefore remembered ___

HME: HME contradicts with the ___ (which predicts that people will better perceive and remember those contents that agree with their own beliefs)

HME: Selective categorization: each side tends to perceive neutral arguments as ___

HME: Different standards: each side has a different judgement on what arguments are appropriate to bring up; the opposing group’s arguments are considered to be ___ or ___, so they are judged as ___

HME: Prior beliefs: people believe mass media reporting is ___ and ___

HME: In ___ communication situations, we can observe the confirmation bias, whereas in ___ situations mediated through mass media we can observe the Hostile Media Effect

HME: In the mass communication situation, our focus is more on the other people who we assume may ___ the message (see Third Person Effect), resulting in a more ___ information processing strategy and judgement

HME: Typical Methodology

HME Classic Study (Perceptions of Media Bias in Coverage of the Beirut Massacre): Students (pro-Arab and pro-Israeli students) watched reporting on Beirut massacre in 1982 and rated it in a subsequent ___

HME Classic Study Results: participants perceived the reporting as biased against ___. Each side had different views on the ___ of the arguments presented and remembered more statements against their own view than in favor of them. Those who knew more about the conflict showed more ___

HME: Limitations