|
P
|
|
Carbon,
|
|
Hydrogen,
|
|
Oxygen---
|
|
these
|
|
are
|
|
a
|
|
few
|
|
examples
|
|
of
|
|
what
|
|
science
|
|
calls
|
|
atoms,
|
|
the
|
|
smallest
|
|
discrete,
|
|
meaningful
|
|
units
|
|
of
|
|
matter.
|
|
Analogously,
|
|
linguistics
|
|
denotes
|
|
the
|
|
smallest
|
|
discrete,
|
|
meaningful
|
|
units
|
|
of
|
|
speech
|
|
morphemes.
|
|
For
|
|
example,
|
|
play
|
|
and
|
|
ground
|
|
combine
|
|
to
|
|
form
|
|
the
|
|
compound
|
|
word
|
|
play-ground.
|
|
And
|
|
like
|
|
atoms,
|
|
which
|
|
differ
|
|
in
|
|
their
|
|
constituent
|
|
protons,
|
|
neutrons,
|
|
and
|
|
electrons,
|
|
every
|
|
morpheme
|
|
is
|
|
some
|
|
permutation
|
|
of
|
|
more
|
|
primitive
|
|
elements.
|
|
In
|
|
spoken
|
|
languages,
|
|
these
|
|
are
|
|
called
|
|
phonemes;
|
|
all
|
|
natural
|
|
human
|
|
languages
|
|
share
|
|
the
|
|
same
|
|
phonological
|
|
basis.
|
|
These
|
|
|
P
|
|
linguistic
|
|
terms---
|
|
and
|
|
many
|
|
others---
|
|
exist
|
|
to
|
|
evaluate,
|
|
categorize,
|
|
and
|
|
compare
|
|
existing,
|
|
natural
|
|
languages.
|
|
But
|
|
they
|
|
also
|
|
provide
|
|
a
|
|
convenient
|
|
framework
|
|
for
|
|
the
|
|
exciting
|
|
field
|
|
of
|
|
inventing
|
|
and
|
|
teaching
|
|
entirely
|
|
new
|
|
languages,
|
|
appropriately
|
|
called
|
|
constructed
|
|
languages.
|
|
Nothing
|
|
but
|
|
imagination
|
|
limits
|
|
their
|
|
diversity
|
|
of
|
|
structure
|
|
and
|
|
purpose.
|
|
They
|
|
generally
|
|
fit
|
|
three
|
|
broad,
|
|
overlapping
|
|
descriptions:
|
|
engineered,
|
|
auxiliary,
|
|
artistic.
|
|
Engineered
|
|
languages
|
|
are
|
|
experiments
|
|
in
|
|
logic,
|
|
philosophy,
|
|
or
|
|
linguistic
|
|
theory.
|
|
They
|
|
often
|
|
test
|
|
the
|
|
limits
|
|
of
|
|
communication.
|
|
Take
|
|
Lobjan,
|
|
for
|
|
instance,
|
|
which
|
|
attempts
|
|
to
|
|
|
P
|
|
completely
|
|
eliminate
|
|
both
|
|
semantic
|
|
and
|
|
syntactic
|
|
ambiguity---
|
|
which
|
|
refer
|
|
to
|
|
individual
|
|
words
|
|
and
|
|
entire
|
|
sentences
|
|
having
|
|
multiple,
|
|
grammatically
|
|
correct
|
|
interpretations.
|
|
Or
|
|
take
|
|
Ithkuil,
|
|
which
|
|
utilizes
|
|
every
|
|
single
|
|
unique
|
|
sound
|
|
and
|
|
intonation
|
|
the
|
|
human
|
|
voice
|
|
can
|
|
make
|
|
for
|
|
incredible
|
|
terseness.
|
|
The
|
|
Ithkuil
|
|
phrase
|
|
"Tram-mļöi hhâsmařpţuktôx"
|
|
translates
|
|
to
|
|
"On
|
|
the
|
|
contrary,
|
|
I
|
|
think
|
|
it
|
|
may
|
|
turn
|
|
out
|
|
that
|
|
this
|
|
rugged
|
|
mountain
|
|
range
|
|
trails
|
|
off
|
|
at
|
|
some
|
|
point."
|
|
Another,
|
|
almost
|
|
laughable
|
|
example
|
|
is
|
|
Fith.
|
|
Each
|
|
sentence
|
|
represents
|
|
one
|
|
last-in-first-out
|
|
stack.
|
|
Like
|
|
a
|
|
computer,
|
|
each
|
|
|
P
|
|
word
|
|
enters
|
|
the
|
|
stack
|
|
chronologically
|
|
and
|
|
can
|
|
modify
|
|
or
|
|
sort
|
|
it.
|
|
These
|
|
are
|
|
intriguing
|
|
thought
|
|
experiments
|
|
in
|
|
the
|
|
possibilities
|
|
of
|
|
communication,
|
|
but
|
|
other
|
|
constructed
|
|
languages
|
|
actually
|
|
attempt
|
|
to
|
|
foster
|
|
it.
|
|
Rather
|
|
than
|
|
adhering
|
|
to
|
|
arbitrary,
|
|
convoluted
|
|
standards---
|
|
auxiliary
|
|
languages
|
|
are
|
|
usually
|
|
intended
|
|
to
|
|
be
|
|
as
|
|
universal
|
|
and
|
|
easy-to-pick-up
|
|
as
|
|
possible---
|
|
an
|
|
especially
|
|
relevant
|
|
mission
|
|
in
|
|
our
|
|
globalized
|
|
world.
|
|
The
|
|
most
|
|
widely-spoken
|
|
constructed
|
|
language,
|
|
Esperanto,
|
|
was
|
|
created
|
|
by
|
|
L.
|
|
L.
|
|
Zamenhof
|
|
in
|
|
1887
|
|
to
|
|
promote
|
|
international
|
|
harmony
|
|
without
|
|
the
|
|
cultural
|
|
dominance
|
|
|
P
|
|
of
|
|
a
|
|
lingua
|
|
franca,
|
|
or
|
|
a
|
|
"language
|
|
of
|
|
trade."
|
|
In
|
|
contrast
|
|
to
|
|
the
|
|
pragmatism
|
|
of
|
|
engineered
|
|
and
|
|
auxiliary
|
|
languages,
|
|
artistic
|
|
languages
|
|
contribute
|
|
to
|
|
world-building
|
|
in
|
|
fiction.
|
|
J.
|
|
R.
|
|
R.
|
|
Tolkien
|
|
created
|
|
a
|
|
complex
|
|
family
|
|
of
|
|
elvish
|
|
languages
|
|
for
|
|
middle
|
|
earth,
|
|
woven
|
|
into
|
|
the
|
|
rich
|
|
history
|
|
of
|
|
their
|
|
civilization.
|
|
He
|
|
also
|
|
wrote
|
|
an
|
|
in-universe
|
|
constructed
|
|
language
|
|
called
|
|
the
|
|
Black
|
|
Speech.
|
|
Its
|
|
creator
|
|
Sauron
|
|
imposed
|
|
it
|
|
on
|
|
the
|
|
peoples
|
|
he
|
|
conquered,
|
|
embodying
|
|
the
|
|
permeating
|
|
control
|
|
of
|
|
a
|
|
totalitarian
|
|
regime.
|
|
Similarly,
|
|
George
|
|
Orwell
|
|
|
P
|
|
created
|
|
Newspeak
|
|
for
|
|
his
|
|
novel
|
|
1984
|
|
to
|
|
satirize
|
|
its
|
|
real-world
|
|
inspiration:
|
|
Basic
|
|
English.
|
|
He
|
|
warned
|
|
that
|
|
in
|
|
a
|
|
language
|
|
like
|
|
Newspeak,
|
|
"a
|
|
heretical
|
|
thought
|
|
should
|
|
be
|
|
literally
|
|
unthinkable,
|
|
at
|
|
least
|
|
so
|
|
far
|
|
as
|
|
thought
|
|
is
|
|
dependent
|
|
on
|
|
words."
|
|
Artificial
|
|
languages
|
|
are
|
|
an
|
|
interesting
|
|
but
|
|
often
|
|
overlooked
|
|
means
|
|
of
|
|
experiment,
|
|
communication,
|
|
and
|
|
artistry.
|
|
I
|
|
hope
|
|
you
|
|
have
|
|
come
|
|
to
|
|
appreciate
|
|
another,
|
|
less
|
|
concrete,
|
|
more
|
|
obscure
|
|
type
|
|
of
|
|
atom
|
|
today
|
|
and
|
|
its
|
|
constructive
|
|
power
|
|
to
|
|
form
|
|
compounds---
|
|
natural
|
|
and
|
|
novel.
|
|
Thank
|
|
you.
|
|
