YEAR ONE: A-Level Chemistry OCR-B

____ are composed of protons, neutrons and electrons

____ have charge +1 and mass 1

____ have charge 0 and mass 1

____ have charge -1 and mass 0

the number of protons in the nucleus

the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus

atoms of the same element with different mass numbers

relative atomic mass is an average of the isotopic masses accounting for their ____

measures the atomic or molecular mass of different particles in a sample and the relative abundance of different isotopes in an element

in a mass spectrometer, sample atoms or molecules are ionised to ____

these are then separated according to their ____

relative abundance can be calculated from the ____ of each peak on a mass spectrum

samples of an element may vary in Ar depending on their source due to different ____ of isotopes between samples

two light atomic nuclei fuse to form a single heavier nucleus of a new element, releasing energy

fusion requires high temperatures so the nuclei are moving ____ enough to overcome the repulsion

____ theory of light: light is a form of electromagnetic radiation and so behaves as a wave with a wavelength and frequency

____ theory of light: light is a stream of photons

____ of a photon = Planck constant x frequency

speed of light = wavelength x ____

when an atom is ____, electrons jump into higher energy levels

when electrons return to their ____, they emit the extra energy as electromagnetic radiation

the energy difference is emitted as electromagnetic radiation and can be used to give an ____

an ____ is formed when white light is passed through a cool sample of a gaseous element

electrons in atoms only exist in definite energy levels. the certain definite quantities of energy are called ____

a ____ is emitted or absorbed when the electron changes energy levels

in hydrogen, the emission lines are called the ____ series

each electron shell is labelled first with n, the ____

the higher the value of n, the ____ the shell from the nucleus and the higher the energy associated

shell n=n holds ____ electrons

shells have subshells s, p, d and f which can hold 2, 6, 10 and ____ electrons respectively

____ are places in an atom where an electron is likely to be found

s, p, d and f subshells contain 1, 3, 5 and ____ orbitals respectively

each orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons if they have ____ spins

an s orbital is ____

a p orbital is shaped like a ____

the arrangement of electrons in shells and orbitals

the orbitals are filled in order of increasing energy to produce the ____ energy arrangement possible

in an ____ atom, all orbitals in the same sub-shell have the same energy

only when all ____ in a sub-shell are occupied with one electron do the electrons pair up

for the lowest energy arrangement, electrons in singly occupied orbitals have ____ spins

the modern periodic table is based on one proposed by ____

electrons are organised into four blocks labelled s, p, d and ____

the s block is groups 1 and ____

the p block is groups 3 to ____

the d block is the ____

the f block is the ____ and actinides

elements in the same block show general similarities: e.g. all the non-metals are in the ____ block

vertical columns in the periodic table

horizontal rows in the periodic table

the occurrence of patterns across a period from left to right

____ tend to increase from groups 1 to 4, then fall sharply and gradually decrease

an element that has all of its sub-shells fully occupied by electrons has a ____ arrangement

____ tends to create this

shared pair of electrons

pair of electrons not involved in bonding

both bonding electrons are donated by one atom in the pair

____ interactions between different simple molecules are weak, so melting and boiling points are low

because there are no charge particles, simple covalent molecules do not ____ electricity

they also do not usually dissolve readily in ____

you can determine the shape of a molecule by ____

this means atoms arrange themselves to minimise ____

lone pairs repel ____ strongly than bonding pairs

tetrahedral: 4 single covalent bonds, no lone pairs around the central atom, bond angle ____

trigonal pyramidal: 3 single covalent bonds, 1 lone pair around the central atom, bond angle ____

bent: 2 single covalent bonds, 2 lone pairs around the central atom, bond angle ____

linear: 2 groups of electrons around the central atom, bond angle ____

trigonal planar: 3 groups of electrons around the central atom, bond angle ____

ethene is ____

trigonal bipyramidal: 5 groups of electrons around the central atom, bond angles 120 or ____ depending on the position in the molecule

octahedral: 6 groups around the central atom, bond angle ____

mass of an element's atom relative to carbon-12

mass of one mole

this is equal to the Ar in ____

____ = molar mass x mol

sum of the constituent relative atomic masses is the relative formula mass or ____

the basic units that make up a substance that match the formulae of that substance

number of formula units in 1 mol

formula that tells you actual numbers of different types of atom per formula unit

formula that tells you the ratio of different types of atom per formula unit

water fitted regularly within the crystals of some ionic lattices

ionic compounds with this are ____

when heated, this is removed as steam, leaving the ____ solid

expected amount of product in a reaction carried out under ideal conditions

factors that can reduce amount of product produced include: (1) loss of product from reaction ____

(2) ____ occurring and producing unwanted by-products

(3) ____ in the reactants

(4) changes in ____ and pressure if the reaction is an equilibrium system

how much product you actually get

(experimental yield / theoretical yield) x 100

positively charged ions

negatively charged ions

ions are only formed when ____ react with non-metals if the overall energy change is favourable

electrons are transferred from the metal to the non-metal atoms, often giving both a ____ electronic structure

anions and cations are held together by opposite charges in an ____ attraction

in a solid compound, each ion attracts many others of opposite charge and a giant ____ builds up

acid + base/alkali => salt + ____

acid + carbonate => salt + water + ____

acid + metal => salt + ____

many ionic substances dissolve readily in ____

this excludes: (1) silver and lead ____

(2) all metal ____

(3) barium, calcium, lead and silver ____

(4) all metal ____ (except group 1)

when ionic substances ____, the ions becomes surrounded by water molecules and spread out through the solution

they behave independently of each other, which is why ____ solutions of salts conduct electricity

ionic reactions in solution that forms a solid precipitate

ions that don't take part in the reaction

when a solution of sodium hydroxide is added to a solution of ____, the following colour forms:

(1) copper 2+

(2) iron 2+

(3) iron 3+

potassium iodide + lead 2+ forms a ____ precipitate

precipitate colour of silver nitrate + nitric acid + halide ion: (1) chloride

(2) bromide

(3) iodide

barium chloride + sulfate ions forms a ____ precipitate

ionic compounds are typically ____ at room temperature, have a 3D lattice structure and often form regular crystals

attraction overcomes repulsion between ions so ionic compounds have high ____

once ____ or dissolved, they can conduct electricity

metals have a lattice structure of metal cations in a sea of ____ valence electrons

metals have high melting and boiling points due to the ____ attractions between cations and electrons

metals ____ electricity as the electrons are free to move

covalent networks can also form, which have strong ____ bonds between atoms in the network

they have high melting and boiling points and are ____ soluble in water

they do not usually conduct electricity, excepting ____

elements become more ____ down a group (more readily form cations) and less across a period

energy needed to remove one mole of the most loosely held electrons from one mole of isolated gaseous ions to create one mole of gaseous ions with a +1 charge

this increases across a period because the nuclear charge becomes more positive but the ____ stays very similar

it decreases down a group because of more ____

metal oxides and hydroxides form ____ solutions in water but are not very soluble

non-metals form ____ solutions

the most strongly alkaline oxides and hydroxides are at the ____ of the group

as you go down group two: (1) reactivity with water ____

(2) pH of the hydroxide in water ____

(3) solubility of the hydroxide ____

(4) solubility of the carbonate ____

the change in ____ of the carbonates is due to charge density of the cations

cations with a higher charge density can ____ the negative charge cloud around the carbonate ion

this makes it ____ thermally stable so breaks down more easily on heating

proton donors that dissociate in water to produce hydrogen ions

protons acceptors that react with an acid to produce water and a salt

this theory of H+ transfer is the ____ theory of acids and bases

____ theory is that bases are electron pair donors, acids electron pair acceptos

H3O+ is the ____ ion

it occurs in acidic solution. it has 2 simple covalent bonds and 1 ____ covalent bond

this is where the oxygen atom donates both bonding electrons to a ____

it can also act as an acid, donating H+ and becoming a ____ molecule

acid + alkali reaction is called a ____ reaction

neutralisation ____ equation: H+ + OH- => H2O

reaction that releases more energy making bonds than it requires to break bonds

reaction that releases less energy making bonds than it requires to break bonds

the reactants and products of a reaction

everything else

298K, 101kPa, concentration 1 mol dm^-3 for solutions - these are called ____ conditions

the enthalpy change when molar quantities of reactants react together under standard conditions

energy = specific heat capacity x mass x ____ change

you can use a ____ to measure enthalpy changes

here, energy in a reaction is transferred from a reaction vessel to the surrounding ____

the enthalpy change that occurs when one mole of a substance is burnt completely in oxygen under standard conditions

the enthalpy change when one mole of a compound is formed from its elements under standard conditions

the enthalpy change when one mole of hydrogen ions react with one mole of hydroxide ions to form one mole of water under standard conditions

the energy needed to raise the temperature of 1g of a substance by 1K

____ law - enthalpy change for any chemical reaction is independent of the route taken so long as the initial and final conditions are the same

you can calculate enthalpy change of a reaction indirectly using ____

the property of carbon to form covalent bonds with itself

compounds with one or more benzene rings

compounds without benzene rings

modifiers responsible for the chemical reactions of molecules

saturated hydrocarbon, can be straight or branched

a series of related compounds with the same general molecular formulae

at room temperature the first four alkanes are ____

higher members are ____

larger alkanes, n=17+, are ____

alkanes mix well with each other but do not mix with ____ because they are non-polar

the average quantity of energy needed to break a particular bond in the gaseous state

the equilibrium ____ is the balance between the attractive forces of the nuclei and electrons and repulsive forces between nuclei

some reactions need ____ heating, but many do not

this is because if a few bonds break, new bonds can start to ____, which usually gives out enough energy to keep the reaction going

bond enthalpies are often averages from several ____

a substance which increases the rate of a reaction by offering an alternate reaction pathway with lower activation energy

the process of increasing rate of reaction using a catalyst

catalysts are recovered ____ at the end of a reaction

catalysis where both catalyst and reactants are in the same physical state

catalysis where catalyst and reactants are in different physical states

usually, heterogeneous catalysis involves a mixture of gases and liquids reacting in the presence of a ____ catalyst

(1) reactants are ____ onto the surface of the catalyst by forming bonds

(2) bonds in the ____ molecules are weakened and break

(3) new bonds form between the ____, held close together on the catalyst's surface

(4) this weakens the bonds to the catalyst surface and the produces are ____

a catalyst should have a large ____ for contact with reactants

____ catalysts are used as a finely divided form or as a fine wire mesh to maximise this

sometimes the catalyst is supported on a ____ to increase surface area and prevent crumbling

this occurs in ____

many heterogeneous catalysts are ____

catalysts can be ____ so they no longer function properly

the poisons are adsorbed ____ strongly to the catalyst surface than the reactant molecules, reducing surface area available for catalysis

platinum and ____ are used in catalytic converters rather than cheaper metals

this is because cheaper metals are vulnerable to poisoning by trace ____ in the car exhaust

the ____ catalyst in the Haber process can be poisoned if the feedstock contains sulfur compounds, so these are removed first

you can ____ the surface of a poisoned catalyst

for example in the catalytic cracking of ____ hydrocarbons, carbon is produced

catalytic cracking uses a ____ catalyst (contains aluminium oxide and silicon dioxide) and temperatures about 550C

the catalyst surface becomes coated in soot, blocking ____

the catalyst is constantly recycled through a separate container and blown with hot air - oxygen converted carbon to ____ and regenerates the catalyst

alkenes have a carbon carbon ____ so are unsatured

single bond, so called due to the overlap of s orbitals

a double bond contains one sigma bond and one ____ bond

pi bonds consist of two areas of ____, one above and one below the plane of the atoms

the four electrons in ethene's double bond gives the region a high ____ of negative charge

a positive ion or a molecule with a partial positive charge that will be attracted to a negatively charged region and react by accepting a lone pair of electrons to form a covalent bond

bubbling ethene gas through bromine ____ the bromine

as it approaches the alkene, the bromine molecule becomes ____

the ____-positive bromine atom behaves as an electrophile and reacts with the alkene double bond

this leaves a bromide ion and a ____

the bromide ion donates a ____ to the positively charged carbon to form a new C-Br bond

two or more molecules react to form a single, larger molecule

shaking an alkene with water ____ the bromine water

water molecules have lone pairs of electrons and can act as ____ in competition with bromide ions in the second stage of the mechanism

therefore, a ____ might be produced (still colourless)

ethene reacts with a solution of ____ in a polar solvent at room temperature

it can also react with gaseous HBr but this involves a ____

at ____ temperature, ____ pressure, and in the presence of a catalyst, ethene and steam can undergo an addition reaction

the catalyst is ____ acid adsorbed onto solid silica

in the laboratory, ethene can be converted to ethanol by first adding concentrated ____

this forms ____

this can then be diluted with ____ to form the ethanol

adding a molecule of water across a double bond is a ____ reaction

reaction that saturates an unsaturated molecule

for this, you can use (1) a ____ catalyst under standard laboratory conditions

(2) a finely powdered ____ catalyst at high temperature and pressure

a long molecule made up from many smaller monomers

the process by which monomers join to produce long chain polymers

a polymerisation where no byproducts are formed and the monomers tend to contain C=C bonds

more than one monomer is incorporated into the final polymer

____ combustion forms carbon dioxide and water when carbon-based fuels burn

the volume occupied by one mole of any gas at a particular temperature and pressure

at room temperature, this is ____ dm^3

pV = nRT is the ____ equation

units are: Pa, ____, J, K^-1 mol^-1, K respectively

same molecular formula, atoms bonded together in a different order

different arrangement of the carbon atoms

different position of the functional group

same molecular formula but different functional group

same structural formula, different arrangement of atoms in space

both of the two heaviest groups are on the same side of the molecule

the two heaviest groups are on opposite sides of the molecule

stereoisomers form because the carbon-carbon double bond cannot ____ due to the overlap of p orbitals

small carbon particles generated by burning fuels. penetrate deep into the human body and cause heart attacks and lung cancer

compounds that come from unburnt fuel. cause photochemical smog

formed from incomplete combustion of fuels. toxic, causes photochemical smog

comes from combustion of fuels. greenhouse effect

comes from combustion of fuels. acid rain, photochemical smog

burning of sulfur-containing fuels. acid raid, toxic gas

____ reacts with water in the atmosphere to form sulfuric (IV) acid

sulfur dioxide can be oxidised to ____ which reacts with water to form sulfuric (VI) acid

nitrogen oxide and nitrogen dioxide react with atmospheric water and oxygen to form ____ (V) acid

formed when primary pollutants are acted on by sunlight. causes haziness, reduced visibility, respiratory problems

pollutants formed or emitted directly from particular sources

pollutants formed by chemical reactions of primary pollutants

____ remove pollutants in exhaust

in petrol engines: a ____ catalytic converter is used

(1) carbon monoxide is converted to carbon dioxide by adding ____

(2) hydrocarbons are converted to ____ and water by adding oxygen

(3) nitrogen monoxide reacts with carbon monoxide to form ____ and carbon dioxide

____ engines remove nitrogen monoxide and hydrocarbons in the same way

particulates are removed by ____

regeneration of the catalyst is accomplished by periodically increasing the ____

____ oxides can be reduced by recycling some of the exhaust gases through the cylinder, decreasing temperature

you can also use an ____ reagent:

nitrogen oxide + ammonia + oxygen => nitrogen + ____

for both petrol and diesel engines, ____ is best avoided by using low sulfur fuels

made by fermentation of carbohydrate crops

cars cannot run on ethanol alone as it's too ____

however, it can be used in mixtures of petrol up to ____ percent

ethanol can be said to be ____ because carbon dioxide released in burning and fermentation matches the carbon dioxide absorbed in the growing plant

however, does not account for ____ used to produce and distribute the ethanol

made by chemically reacting fats and oils with alcohols

reaction of fats and oils with alcohols to produce fatty acid esters

biodiesel can be made from ____

biodiesel is ____ except for energy used to produce and distribute

biodiesel is ____ if spilled

biodiesel contains virtually no ____ and produces less CO, particulates and hydrocarbons than petrol and diesel

however, biodiesel produces more ____ than conventional fossil fuels

two other examples of biofuels are ____ and biogas

combustion of hydrogen produces only ____

benefits of hydrogen fuel: (1) renewable and can be made from ____ of water

(2) can be stored and sent down ____ (like how methane is currently)

(3) can be used in ____ or fuel cells to generate electricity

(4) produces no CO2, CO or ____ when burnt

however, its production of water often depends on energy from ____ power stations

it's also less ____ than petrol

____ are still produced

____ generate electricity on a small scale in cars

the main problem is that a large volume of ____ hydrogen is required to get the mileage equivalent to a full tank of petrol

one solution is storing it as a ____ in a high-pressure fuel tank

the ____ are in group 7, the p-block

they all have 7 ____ electrons and abundance decreases down the group

all halogens occur as ____ molecules

at room temperature: (1) fluorine is a ____

(2) chlorine is a ____

(3) bromine is a ____

(4) iodine is a ____

iodine ____ to give purple vapour on heating

going down the group, the halogens become darker, have ____ melting and boiling points, become less volatile

the halogens are ____ soluble in organic solvents than water

dissolved in water: (1) chlorine is ____

(2) bromine is ____

(3) iodine is ____

dissolved in cyclohexane: (1) chlorine is ____

(2) bromine is ____

(3) iodine is ____

fluorine is the most reactive of the halogens and is the strongest ____

this is because fluorine atoms are the ____ so the attraction between the nucleus and the outer shell is the greatest

more reactive halogens can ____ less reactive halogens from an aqueous solution of their salts

this is a ____ reaction

the less reactive halogen is ____ and the more reactive halogen reduced

adding nitric acid and silver nitrate to an aqueous solution of a halide precipitates a ____

when ____ solution is added, solubility of the silver halide decreases down the group

how many electrons have been lost or gained compared to the unreacted element

increases when something is ____ and decreases when it is reduced

for an element, oxidation state = ____

for a simple ion, = ____ of the ion

for a compound, overall oxidation states of constituent elements sum to ____

for a complex ion, overall oxidation states sum to the ____ of the ion

a negative ion with oxygen in it

chlorine can form ____ oxyanions, where chlorine's oxidation state can be +1 +3 +5 or +7

balanced equations

breakdown of a compound using electricity

negative electrode where reduction occurs

positive electrode where oxidation occurs

if electrolysis occurs in an ____ solution of a salt, water competes with the ions from the salt

at the cathode, ____ will form unless the metal present is less reactive than hydrogen

equation: 2H2O + 2e- => 2____ + H2

at the anode, oxygen will form unless a ____ ion is present

equation: 2H2O => O2 + 4____ + 4e-

concentrations of reactants and products are constant, both forward and reverse reactions happen at equal rates

Kc is the ____ and it's a measure of how much product compared to reactant there is

if Kc is greater than one, there is more ____

if a system at ____ is changed by adding more of a reagent, the system will counteract that change to maintain position of ____

therefore Kc will not change provided ____ is constant

chlorine is toxic and irritates the eyes, skin and ____

inhaling chlorine at high concentrations can cause it to react in the lungs to form ____

chlorine is transported in pressurised tank containers as a ____

there are pressure release devices designed to vent the tank to prevent it ____ if pressure becomes too high

the tanks are made and lined with ____

this must be dry as chlorine and water react to produce ____ acids

all loading and unloading is done through the ____ at the top of the tank

there is an ____on large chlorine tanks

this closes automatically if the ____ that regulates discharge of chlorine is broken

a ____ ensures that air displaced from the bulk trailer has chlorine removed from it

the ____ is what chlorine is transferred to on site

the scrubber unit has ____ solution that reacts with the chlorine to produce sodium chlorate (I)

to check if chlorine cylinders are leaking, a stick with a cloth soaked in ____ is held near the tank

if it's leaking, a white cloud of ____ will be seen

chlorine has many uses such as in ____ treatment and in bleach products

____ titrations can be used to find the concentration of sodium thiosulfate

sodium thiosulfate is a strong enough oxidising agent to oxidise ____ ions

the end point can be identified by adding ____ solution

the end point is marked by the solution turning ____

(relative formula mass of desired product / relative formula mass of all reactants used) x 100

____ is often made as a co-product from the chlorination of organic compounds

for example, when poly(____) is made, the first stage is reacting ethene with chlorine

this then undergoes ____ to give chloroethane and hydrogen chloride

HCl can be converted to hydrochloric acid if passed through ____

sodium fluoride and sodium chloride both react with concentrated acid to make ____ fluoride/chloride gas

you can see ____ of hydrogen chloride as HCl gas meets moist air

sodium bromide reacts with concentrated sulfuric acid to make ____

the bromide ions are also strong enough reducing agents to reduce sulfuric acid to ____

sodium iodide reacts with concentrated sulfuric acid to make ____

the iodide ions are stronger reducing agents than bromide, so can reduce the sulfur in the acid further to make ____ gas

to prepare pure hydrogen bromide or iodide, concentrated ____ should be used instead as it won't be reduced

____ of the hydrogen halides decreases down the group because bond strength decreases

when heated in a laboratory: (1) hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen chloride are ____ broken down into their elements

(2) some brown bromine ____ is made when HBr is heated strongly

(3) large amounts of purple gaseous iodine are made if a ____ is plunged into gaseous iodide

in solution, the soluble hydrogen halides are all ____

apart from HF they are ____ acids (almost 100% dissociation for HCl, HBr and HI)

all of the hydrogen halides react with ____ to make ammonium salts

if a glass rod is dipped in concentrated ____ solution then placed in the hydrogen halide, a white cloud of ammonium halide is made

if a system is at equilibrium and a change is made in any of the conditions then the system will oppose the change

gas concentrations can be expressed as ____ (ppm)

a molecule has energy associated with several aspects of its behaviour including (1) the molecule moving around

(2) ____ of the whole molecule

(3) ____ of the bonds

(4) ____ energy

all of these energies are ____

we sense ____ radiation as heat as the radiation increases vibrational energy of the bonds in skin

spacing between energy levels: translational ____ rotational ____ vibrational ____ electron

if a molecule absorbs ultraviolet radiation, one of three things might happen: (1) ____ may be excited to a higher energy level

(2) ____ which forms radicals

atoms or molecules with at least one unpaired electron

(3) the molecule may be ____ with very high energy photons

bonds are broken

the shared electrons go to just one of the atoms when the bond breaks

common when a bond is ____. one atom becomes negatively charged and one positively

one of two shared electrons go to each atom

the unpaired electron has a strong tendency to pair up again with another ____

these atoms have no overall charge and are most commonly formed when the bond being broken is ____

polar bonds can also break in this way if the reaction is occurring in the ____ phase in the presence of light

photodissocation of a stronger bond requires higher energy (____ wavelength) light than a weaker bond

radicals are ____ because filled electron shells are more stable than unfilled ones

radical chain reactions have ____ key stages

(1) radicals are formed by photodissociation and soon react with something else

(2) the radicals react with other molecules and produce new radicals

(3) two radicals collide, removing them from the reaction

a reaction will only occur if particles of reactants collide with sufficient energy

minimum energy required for a reaction to be successful

can be used to picture energy changes as a reaction occurs

the highest point on the pathway where old bonds stretch and new ones start to form

the distribution of kinetic energies in a gas at a given temperature

plots ____ energy against fraction of particles with that energy

as temperature ____, the curve will shift right and the peak will be lower

the ____ under the curve remains the same

for many reactions, rate is roughly doubled by a ____K increase in temperature

the enthalpy profile for a catalyst has 2 humps because an ____ is formed

the destruction of ozone in the ____ by chlorine and bromine is homogeneous catalysis

the reaction of ozone with Cl radicals 1500x faster than with ____ radicals and Br is 10x faster than that

the Cl and Br radicals are ____ so a single Cl can remove about 1 million ozone molecules

overall reaction: O + O3 -> 2____

____ radicals form when oxygen reacts with water in the stratosphere

this forms ____ and oxygen

the HO2 radicals then react with oxygen atoms to ____ the hydroxyl radicals

____ reacts with ozone to form nitrogen dioxide and dioxygen

____ then reacts with oxygen atoms to release nitrogen monoxide and dioxygen

NO and NO2 are both radicals but are unusual because they are quite ____

the tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract electrons in a chemical bond

when atoms are unequally electronegative, one gets a slightly negative charge, creating a ____ bond

carbon-halogen bonds in ____ are polar but not enough to make a large difference to the physical properties of the compounds

the bigger the halogen atom and the ____ halogen atoms there are, the higher the boiling point

intermolecular forces are stronger the ____ an alkane's chain is

straight chain alkanes have ____ boiling points than branched ones due to more contacts between molecules for intermolecular bonds to form

a molecule or part of a molecule with a positive and negative end

____ dipoles occur when atoms in a bond have different electronegativities

a molecule with polar bonds can have no overall dipole if one charge is ____ on the other (e.g. tetrachloromethane)

electrons are in constant motion. when unevenly distributed, an ____ occurs

an ____ dipole occurs when an unpolarised molecule is next to a dipole

you can have: instantaneous ____ induced ____ bonds, permanent ____ induced ____ bonds, permanent ____ permanent ____ bonds

the halogens form only ____ bonds. the boiling points increase down the group because as the size of the atoms increases these become stronger

for a ____ bond to form:

(1) there must be a large dipole between a hydrogen atom and a highly ____ atom such as O, N or F

(2) there must be a ____ atom in a nearby molecule which can get very close to the O, N or F

(3) there must be a ____ on the O, N or f for the positively charged hydrogen atom to line up with

compounds with hydrogen bonding have ____ boiling points as they require a lot of energy to break

liquids with hydrogen bonding have high ____ (flow requires breaking and reformation of intermolecular bonds which is harder with stronger bonds)

substances with hydrogen bonding are often ____-soluble as hydrogen bonds can form between solute and solvent

when water freezes it forms ice crystals - an open structure with ____ hydrogens around each oxygen atom to maximise hydrogen bonding

haloalkanes are formed by a ____ halogenation mechanism

homolytic fission of haloalkanes occurs in the stratosphere when exposed to ____

heterolytic fission is more common under laboratory conditions because the carbon-halogen bond is ____

sometimes this is caused by a nucleophile attacking the partially positive carbon atom, causing a ____ reaction

a molecule or ion with a lone pair of electrons that it can donate to a positively charged atom to form a covalent bond

(1) the nucleophile attacks the delta-positive carbon and donates two electrons to form a new ____ covalent bond

(2) the C-X bond breaks heterolytically and the halogen receives two electrons, producing a ____ ion

the group that leaves the molecule

heating a haloalkane in a sealed tube with concentrated ammonia can produce an ____

you can use nucleophilic substitution to produce a haloalkane from an alcohol in the presence of a ____

an H+ binds to the ____ on the alcohol group, giving the carbon atom a higher partial positive charge and making it more readily attacked

bond ____ and bond strength both decrease down the group

rate of ____ of a carbon halogen bond is determined by bond strength

____ are polar due to the polarised OH bond, so can form hydrogen bond

they become less ____ as the hydrocarbon chain becomes longer and the influence of the OH group decreases

alcohols with an -OH bonded to a carbon bonded to one other carbon atom

alcohols with an -OH bonded to a carbon bonded to two other carbon atoms

alcohols with an -OH bonded to a carbon bonded to three other carbon atoms

acidified potassium ____ can be used to oxidise primary and secondary alcohols

the OH group is converted to a ____ group, and the reaction mixture turns from orange to green

primary alcohols are initially oxidised to ____

further reflux with excess oxidising agent can oxidise them to ____

secondary alcoholes are oxidised to ____ but not further because that would involve breaking a strong carbon carbon bond

tertiary alcohols are not oxidised because there is no ____ atom on the carbon atom to which the -OH is attached

____ is a safe method for heating volatile and flammable liquids

the liquid is boiled with a vertically mounted ____ so the vapour condenses and returns back into the reaction mixture

many alcohols can lose a molecule of water to form an ____ and water (dehydration, elimination)

this requires a heated alumina catalyst at ____ degrees C or reflux with concentrated sulfuric acid

you can ____ an alcohol with carboxylic acid or acid anhydride

carboxylic acid: slow, requires strong acid catalyst and heating under reflux, reaction comes to ____

the ester can then be separated from the mixture by ____ and purified

acid anhydride: react completely with an alcohol on warming to give a higher yield of ester, also produce a ____

____ are functional group isomers of alcohols and have formula R-O-R

they are derived from alkanes by substituting an ____ group (-OR) gor a hydrogen atom

the OH group reacts with water to form ____ so behaves as an acid

in order of acid strength: ethanol ____ water ____ phenol ____ carboxylic acids

phenols and carboxylic acids react with ____ bases to produce ionic salts but only carboxylic acids can react with weak bases

iron (IIII) chloride solution turns from yellow to pink in the presence of a ____

you can esterify ____ (salicylic) acid in two ways because it has both a phenol and carboxylic acid group

(1) esterify the phenol group to form ____ (aspirin) - water soluble, can be absorbed into the bloodstream through the stomach wall

(2) react the -COOH with methanol to form ____ (oil of wintergreen) which is used as a linament - fat soluble, absorbed through the skin

both esters are used to reduce pain and ____

infrared spectroscopy: substances are exposed to infrared radiation and their bonds absorb different ____

the part of the infrared spectrum below 1500 cm^-1

equal to 1/wavelength, unit recorded on an infrared spectrum

the heaviest ion on a mass spectrum corresponding to the molecule with just one electron removed

the way in which a parent ion breaks down into smaller fragments

an M+1 peak indicates that one of the carbon atoms in the molecule is carbon-____

____ chemistry is developing chemicals and products that are sustainable

____ principles: prevent waste, less hazardous synthesis, safer products, safer solvents, lower energy use, renewable feedstocks, reduce reagents used and number of steps, use catalysts and more selective catalysts, products designed for degradation, better process monitoring, safer processes

need to ____ with: cost of new reagents, health and safety issues of new reagents, yield, cost of new procedures (e.g. if lowering temperature increases time to reach equilibrium does it save money and energy?)